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General
Most, although not all, programs make use of the following keys to control the cursor on the screen: The four arrow keys allow small movement in the direction of the arrow. The 'Home' and 'End' keys usually move you to the left or right end of a line (respectively). The 'PageUp' and 'PageDown' keys (PgUp or PgDn, for short) usually move you to the top or bottom (respectively) of the current screen when first pushed, then move to the top of each preceding screen (or the bottom of each following screen) each time they are pushed. They provide a quick way to move through a document.
Many programs support the following editing control keys. Each key requires that the 'Control' (or Ctrl) key be held down while the specific key is tapped.
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'Ctrl' + 'C' |
Copies selected text or object |
Most programs have "default" settings. This simply means that there are usually many aspects of a program that you can change. It may be something as simple as the background color or the size of the window when the program starts up, or it can be quite complicated. Some programs use the term "default" to mean whatever the current settings happen to be (whether or not you have changed them), while others consider the default settings to be those that were in effect when the program first came out of the box. When you make changes, you are actually changing information in a data file that the computer reads each time the program starts up. Any change you make is almost always saved to this file and will remain in effect until you change it again. You can usually access these settings through an "Options", 'Preferences" or 'User Setup" menu item.
Text that is to be displayed/printed in a certain font, font size, color or attribute bold, underlined, Italics, etc.). A formatted document may also make use of tables, multiple columns, margins, centering horizontally or vertically or other features. Usually formatted material has special hidden command sequences that recreate the formatting when the document is printed or loaded into a computer.
Margins are the white space that appears at each edge of a printed document. Typically, margins are set at 1 inch. That means there will be a one inch area along each edge of the sheet of paper without any printing on it. The margins can often be adjusted through the 'File", 'Page Setup" menu choices. For most documents, the "default" margins (usually 1" or 1.25") are appropriate.
A letter typically has just one column of text. A newspaper has several columns of text. Between each column of text is an unprinted area or margin called the "gutter". Columns can make your text easier to read (less words on a line so the eye has less distance to travel left to right and back again). Columns can also be used to advantage to organize and separate material as in a résumé.
This refers to the orientation of the document on paper. if the document is displayed/printed with its width less than its height, it is in "portrait" mode. if the width exceeds the height, it is in "landscape" mode. Normal letter paper is 8.5 x 11 inches in size. if the text is printed across the 8.5" dimension, it is in "portrait" mode. if the text is printed across the 11" dimension, it is "landscape" mode. Most documents, such as this one, are printed in "portrait" mode.
Word wrap is one of the most useful features of word processing. As you are typing, the words flow across a line on the screen. When a word is too long to fit in before the right margin, that word is automatically shifted down to the next line. You do not need to concern yourself about making words fit between the margins, at all. The only time when you should use the 'Enter' or 'Return' key is when you want to force a new line such as when starting a new paragraph. "Word Wrap" is almost always on by default when you start up a true word processor. Text editors, such as Notepad often have a "word wrap" feature, but it is usually turned off by default.
(Instead of moving the whole word to the next line, most word processors can be set up to automatically break a word into syllables and place a hyphen at the end of a syllable that occurs at the end of a line. The English language being inconsistent on how a word can be divided, you need to take special care when using this feature. if you do not feel confident that you know where the word should be divided, do not use this feature. Note that even I do not use it!)
To indent is to adjust the position of a line or paragraph in comparison with one or more margins. For example, this paragraph has each line indented in from the left and right margin.
A "normal" indent is to have the first line of each paragraph moved in about .5 of an inch (or about 5 characters or spaces). This can usually be accomplished by first pressing the 'Tab' key before starting to type the paragraph. (You can also just move the cursor to the beginning of the first line and then press 'Tab'. You can usually indent the left side of a full paragraph by pressing 'F7' (but not always).
A "hanging" indent is the opposite of a "normal" indent. Here, the first line of a "paragraph" or block of text extends to the left margin, but every following line is indented. Word processors use different commands to achieve this effect as well as the effect of indenting from both margins.
Justifying text usually refers to the horizontal position of text on a line or within a paragraph or document. There are four variations:
All text (unless it is indented as at the beginning of a paragraph) lines up with the left margin. Because words are of varying length, the space next to the right margin will change creating a "ragged" right edge. This is a normal or "traditional" effect for most text, especially handwritten or typed.
Used primarily for special effect. All text is aligned to the right margin creating a "jagged" edge on the left side.
Used for special effect or for headings and titles. Each line of text is spaced an equal distance from the left and right margins. In multiple lines of text, a "jagged" edge will be created on both ends (at both margins).
Each line of text (except the right end of the last line in a paragraph) will extend to each margin. Thus there will be no "jagged" edge. This is accomplished either by increasing the spacing between words or letters (or by using both techniques). This format has been popularly used in almost all typeset material (such as books, magazines and newspapers). With the advent of computers, this technique is now available to anyone and, as a result, has been abandoned by some publishers.
Short letters or documents may look "unprofessional" if the text is primarily in the upper half of a page. To correct this problem, most word processors have a "center page" or "center vertically" command that will shift the text down so an approximately equal amount of white space will appear above and below the text.
- Browser
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A browser is a program that can read and display special files that use HTML (Hypertext markup language). HTML tells a browser how to display text (font size, columns, tables, etc.) and how to mix text and graphics. Browser often include the ability to receive and send e-mail messages and read and respond to newsgroup postings. The two most popular browsers are Netscape's Navigator (part of its Communicator suite) and Microsoft's Internet Explorer. Both of these browsers are now available without cost. There are some other browsers available as well (such as the highly praised Opera), but most other browsers must be paid for.
For "Unique Resource Locator". An URL is simply an address to a certain web site - and no other site. The 'URL' starts with the method of connection, usually 'http://' (hypertext transfer protocol). This is followed by the address of the site or computer you wish to connect to, such as 'http://www.dataandcoms.com'. Finally (and this is optional), is a path to the specific folder and/or file you are interested in, such as '/~oldfield/index~html'. The complete URL (http://www.dataandcoms/introcomputers/index.html) would thus retrieve the file "index.html" from the folder "oldfield" which is stored on the site/computer named "nas.net" (which is Net Access, an ISP). (The site/computer name is assigned by a regulatory body of the Internet.)
Two different methods used to connect from your computer through a modem to your ISP. Don't worry about their technical names.
The company, like Net Access (nas.net) that provides your connection to the Internet.
When using a web browser, you will encounter words that are underlined and usually in a different color (often blue). By clicking your mouse button while the mouse pointer is over these words, you will be taken to the web site or page these words link to. Often there will be graphics that perform the same flinction.
This is a set of protocols or rules that control the flow of data between computers over some networks and over the Internet.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol. These are the "rules" that control how a web page is transmitted from the server to your machine. On older browsers (prior to versions 3), you needed to tell the browser to use this protocol when you typed in the URL. For example, to access our Data and Coms site, you would type in "http://www.dataandcoms.com/". On newer browsers, you just type "http://www.dataandcoms.com/" and on the very latest browsers, just "dataandcoms.com/".
Hypertext Markup Language. This is the language or code that tells your browser how to display text and graphics. This code is used to indicate when text should be indented, or enlarged, made bold or underlined. The code also indicates where graphics should be placed and identifies links. For example, to indicate that a word should be bold and underlined, the HTML code would look like this:
<B><U>This is bold and underlined.</U></B>
and would look like this:
This is bold and underlined.
File Transfer Protocol. When you transfer a file from your computer to any other computer (on a network or anywhere on the Internet, you may be using FTP. It is simply a set of rules that allow the two computers to connect and exchange data. There are two main types of transfer: text and binary. Text is the simplest and fastest method since it uses only limited error detection. Binary must be used if you are transferring heavily formatted text, pictures, sound or a program. Although there are dedicated programs to handle FTP transfers, for most people, their browser can handle all of the FTP transfers they will need.
This is sort of organized e-mail. However, to receive messages from a newsgroup, you must first subscribe to it. Your browser has the built in capability to access e-mail and newsgroups. You can download the list of newsgroups that your ISP supports (there are so many newsgroups that probably no ISP carries all of them). When you find a newsgroup that interests you, just subscribe to it. You will automatically be notiofied when new messages arrive when you check your newsgroup section.
Each newsgroup is concerned with a single, fairly narrow topic. Usually, messages are organized by subjects. Someone posts a messsage (just like sending e-mail) which is sent to all members of the group (those who have subscribed). When someone answers the message, it also is sent to everyone, but it is identified as a reply to the first message, so they are grouped together. You can choose to view messages by subjects (reading the first message, then the reply, etc.) or by date. Reading messages by the date they were posted means that you may be jumping from one to subject to another and another and then back to the first. The choice is yours.
For many people, the ability to "chat" in real time is the most interesting part of the web. In most cases, you "chat" by typing messages on the keyboard, but it is possible to chat with real audio and/or video if your connection to the Internet is fast enough to make this practical. There are special sites on the Internet that allow you to log on and join others in a "chat room". There you can join in with the main conversation, or form a smaller group and move to a "private chat room" where you can chat amongst your small group. Although you are usually required to log on with your real name, you can assume an alias or "avotar" which may consist of just a name (or nickname) but may also include a face or icon. One of the attractions of chat rooms is that you can chat with people from all over the world. You can (and should) keep your real identity secret. The problem is that you have no idea who you are talking with. Care should be taken about persuing any "chat room" friendship.
When you transfer a file TO another computer, you are uploading. When you retrieve a file FROM another computer, you are downloading.
Although today's phone lines usually provide crystal clear communication, there is always some degree of "noise" or interference on the line. This interference can be a big problem for computers, especially if they are transferring data at high speeds such as 28.8, 33.6 or 56.6 kilobytes per second (or even faster). To ensure that data is recognizable when it arrives at the destination computer, some form of error detection and correction is used. This happens automatically. When simple text is being transferred (such as in most e-mail), error detection is not so important since only a few different characters are being used and usually a message is still readable even if a couple of characters are incorrect. However, with a binary transfer, every bit of data must be correct, especially for a program. Even a single error can cause a program to either run incorrectly or not run at all.
Any message sent from one computer to another is essentially e-mail. Most e-mail resembles a simple memo. In order to send or receive e-mail, you must have an e-mail account. If you are on a network, your network adrninistrator will set up an e-mail account for you. If you plan to use e-mail over the Internet, your ISP usually supplies you with an e-mail account as part of your connection package. if, for some reason, you do not have an e-mail account, but do have access to the World Wide Web, you can easily set up a free e-mail account at sites such as http://www.rocketmail.com/ or http://www.hotrmail.com/.
One of the main uses of the Internet is to obtain information of one type or another. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to know where the information you want is located. To help you find this information, various types of search engines have been developed. There are essentially two ways to locate information. The most common approach is to submit a key word or phrase. A database of words and locations is then searched to find possible matches which are presented to you. The other approach is to use a program that takes your key word or phrase and actively searches for sites on the Internet that contain your search criteria. This process can be very time consuming, especially as the Internet grows larger every second.
Once your key word or phrase has been processed, you will hopefully be presented with a list of possible sites. It is important to realize that many of these sites will not have what you are looking for. Many sites may be unreliable as well. You have to use good judgment not only in choosing which site(s) to check out, but in deciding if the information the site provides is trustworthy.
It is still possible to use a program that actively searches sites, moving from one to another, but in most cases, this is too time consuming and wasteflil. Today most searches use a web site especially designed for this purpose. Two such sites are "http://www.yahoo.com/" and "http://www.infoseek.com/". All such sites use a database of keywords and locations that is searched to find possible sites for you. Information for the database is obtained in various ways, including using a program that actively investigates sites on the Internet adding significant words to the database. Such programs are usually referred to as "web crawlers". You should keep in mind that each search site uses its own criteria for determinmg if a site is suitable for a specific keyword. For this reason, if you do not find what you are looking for uses one search engine, you should try another. You also need to be aware that it is possible to 'foor' search engines into believing that a site has useftil information about a keyword when, in fact, the site has little or no content related to that topic. Such '~ricks" are sometimes used by web site creators to better ensure that their site will turn up in a given search result or to move their site closer to the top of such a search list.
Telnet is a program that allows your computer to act as a dumb terminal to another remote computer (usually a computer running UNIX or a main frame computer). As a terminal, you can control the other computer to some limited extent by issuing commands to it. These commands are usually limited to such actions as getting a list of accessible files, viewing or download certain files, or carrying on a typed conversation with a person connected to another terminal. The degree of control you have over the remote computer depends on the level of access you have been granted. Different passwords are required for different levels of access.
A Spreadsheet Refers to both the program such as 123 or Excel as well as to the data that can be created with the program. As data, it is synonymous with the term 'Worksheet' described below.
A worksheet is the data produced by a spreadsheet. A blank or new worksheet looks like a grid of intersecting lines. The horizontal lines divide the worksheet into 'Rows' and the vertical lines divide the worksheet into 'Columns'. The intersection of a row and column produces a rectangle called a 'Cell'. By placing text (labels), numerical data, or formulas into appropriate cells, a interconnected body of data can be created. Some examples include annual budget, simple database, mortgage, loan or investment calculations (and/or monitoring), and more. Most modem spreadsheets allow the use of multiple worksheets (that can be interconnected) that are saved as one file.
Columns are formed by vertical lines in the worksheet. The space between vertical lines constitutes the column and each column is identified by one or more letters placed at the top of the work window. The first column is labeled 'A', the second column 'B', the twenty-seventh column would be labeled 'AA', and the twenty-eighth column 'AB', etc. For database use, each column represents a 'Field'.
The horizontal lines on a worksheet create the rows. The row is the area between the horizontal lines. Each row is labeled with a number in the far left of the work window. The first column is labeled '1', the second '2' and so on. For database use, each row represents a 'Record'.
A cell is formed at the junction of a row and column. A cell is identified by assigning the letter of its column with the number of its row. For example, the cell formed by the intersection of column E with row 23 would be identified as 'CE23". A 'selected' cell is a rectangle with a border that is darker or thicker than surrounding cells. Three (or four) types of data can be entered into a cell: 'Label', 'Numerical data', or a 'Formula' (a simple formula can consist ofjust a 'Cell Reference' which constitutes the fourth type of data). Although a cell can contain complex formulas, it always displays the results of the calculation as either a label (or text), a number or an error message. By pressing 'F2' on the keyboard, you change to 'Edit' mode and then the actual contents of the cell (i.e. a formula) is revealed and can be edited.
All text and any numbers upon which no calculations will be performed should be entered as labels. If your cell entry begins with a letter or a single quote <'>, the worksheet will treat the data as a label. No calculations can be performed on a label. However, certain operations can be performed such as a cell reference, sorting or checking to see if the cell actually contains a label or is blank.
Any cell entry that begins with a number is considered as numerical data. Numerical data includes integer, decimal and fractional numbers, currency and dates. In addition, you can force the worksheet to treat an entry as either a number or a formula by starting with a plus or ninus sign <+,->, a bracket or parenthesis <(>, or an equal sign <=>. Decimal numbers can be displayed to any reasonable number of digits; however, the cell stores the number with all meaningful decimal places.
A cell reference is the simplest type of formula or formula element. Let's suppose the word "Chair" has been entered into cell B2. Now let's suppose that we enter the following cell reference in cell D3: +B2. As soon as we press 'Enter', the word "Chair" will appear in cell D3 (as well as still appear in cell B2). The cell reference, "+B2", tells the worksheet to display in the current cell (in our example, D3), the contents of cell B2. Cell references make it possible to construct a page or more of data which, by changing the information in just one cell, can be instantly recalculated to yield a completely different set of data. Because cell names always begin with a letter, it is necessary to preface the cell address with a plus or minus sign <+,-> to indicate that the data being entered is not a label.
A formula is composed of any combination of one or more numbers, cell references, mathematical operations or 'Functions'. The simplest formula (other than a cell reference) would be something like "2+2". This formula would display the result "4". Such a formula is not very useful, however, since the numbers can only be changed by editing the formula. It would be more useful to enter the numbers in two cells, such as cells Al and A2. The display the sum of the two numbers in cell D2, enter this formula into D2: +A1+A2. If you entered a '2' in both cells, D2 would display '4'. Now, however, you can change either number, and therefore the sum displayed in D2, just by changing the contents of either A1 or A2. There are never any spaces between elements of a formula.
Every spreadsheet has a number (often more than 200) of 'built-in' functions. A function is a predefined formula that can be used in a cell to perform specified calculations. A function can form the entire formula or only part of it. One of the simplest functions is the "Sum" function. It simply adds up all the values stored between two cell references. In our example above (Formula), we could replace '+Al+A2' with the function '=SUM(al :A2)'. The answer would be identical. (In Lotus 123 and Corel Quattro Pro the function would be entered as '@SUM(al . .A2)'. Obviously, in this example it would be simpler to simply use the plus sign. But imagine if you had numbers entered from Al down through A12 and from B1 down through B12. That's 24 numbers! You'd have to type in all 24 cell references along with 24 plus signs to get your calculation, unless you used a function. To total those 24 numbers, just enter '=SUM(al:b12)'. See how much time can be saved by using functions? Functions can also perform many complicated calculations that most of us would not even know how to attempt - such as determining the monthly payment required for a mortgage. The cell reference 'al :a2' is called a cell 'Range'.
A range specifies a rectangular block of cells. To identify a range, enter the cell address of the top left corner of the range, e.g. 'Al', then a colon, then the bottom right cell address, e.g. 'B 12'. The range would then cover all of the cells between and including these two. A range can be used in formulas as well as for copying data or organizing a print out.
You can simply replace the contents of a cell with new material (even of a different type) just by moving the cell pointer (the dark border around the selected cell) to the required cell and typing in the new information. Let's say you have the number '2' entered in cell Y5. Place the cell pointer on Y5 (if it's not already there) and type 'Frank'. Press 'Enter'. The cell will now display 'Frank'. However, it is often easier to simply modify the contents of a cell rather than type everything in from scratch. This is especially true with formulas. To modify or edit a cell, place the cell pointer on the selected cell and press 'F2' on the keyboard (That's the key in the top row of most keyboards). Now the cells actual contents will be displayed in the cell and the editing cursor will be placed at the end. You can now use the cursor control keys (the left and right arrow and 'Home' and 'End') to move through the contents and change only those items that require changing. When you're finished, press 'Enter'.
The cell pointer is a darker rectangular border that appears around the current or selected cell. Any command you give will affect that cell. You can move the cell pointer with any of the cursor control keys. You can also select a range of cells by dragging across the range holding down the left button, or by choosing the first cell of the range, holding down the 'Shift' key and then using any of the cursor control keys to move to the last cell in the range. Release 'Shift' (or the mouse buff on) and all the selected cells will be highlighted except the very first cell in the range which will still have the cell pointer around it. That first cell is, however, part of the selected range.
Database
Also written as 'data base'. A database is an organized collection of data about a group of related people or things. A Christmas card list or a household inventory list are examples of simple databases. The term 'database' can apply to the program that organizes the data as well as to the data itself See also 9database manager'.
A database manager is usually a program that is capable of handling one or more databases or database files at the same time. Most modern database programs such as Access, Approach, Paradox, dBase, Oracle and FoxPro are more properly called database managers. See also 'relational databases'
A field represents the smallest piece of information that can be stored in a database. A field can store such information as a first name, birthday, selling price, etc.
A record is a collection of all of the fields containing information about ONE person or thing.
A table is the collection of all related records. It is one database. Since each database was stored as a separate file (which may no longer be the case), the collection of records has been called a file. However, since the collection can be displayed in a table, it is also called a table. Today, it is not uncommon for an application to use two or more database tables which, although separate, may be stored as one large file. So, currently, the term 'table' is in more general use than 'file'.
A table closely resembles a spreadsheet worksheet. The fields are set up in columns stretching across the screen and each record is stored as a row down the screen. This format allows a great deal of information to appear on screen at one time (although it may not allow all of the information from one record to appear - unless the user scrolls over the entire table). A table may be easier to 'browse' through, but it can also be more distracting. A form displays all of the data from one record. It is usually possible to display all of this data without scrolling the screen, and it is possible to display only the fields required from the record. A form is a much more versatile display system - but it may require some effort to design and set up.
A form is usually used to a) display information on the screen and/or b) display or print information from one record. A report is usually used to a) provide information in a printed format (hard copy) and/or b) present selected or summarized data from a selected group of (or all) records.
A relational database consists of two or more related tables. A school database where a student's name, address and other personal information is maintained in one table and his/her course marks maintained in another table would be an example. A fiat database contains just one table.
These terms refer to the manner in which the information is retrieved from and stored on a drive. In a sequential database, all of the records are stored one after another. To use a sequential database, all of the records must be loaded into the computer's memory and kept in memory while in use. Then, all of the records with their changes, additions, etc. are written back to the disk when the session is over. On older machines, this effectively limited the maximum size of such a database significantly. It also meant that the information was at the mercy of power outages or computer crashes. This method did provide some advantages. Since all of the records were in memory, moving from one record to another and updating records was much faster. In addition, field sizes did NOT have to be the same length, since the database used a character (such as a comma) to mark (or delimit) the end of each field. Sequential databases could store the same data in less space than random access databases. Sequential databases could also be stored as simple text files. However, all but the simplest databases are random access.
Random access allows the computer to access any record anywhere in the database. To allow this, all records (and therefore all fields) must be of uniform length. If each record requires 500 kilobytes of storage space, then record number 5 must begin at the 200l~ kilobyte and end at the 2500~. Sequential databases usually have to be sorted every time a new record is added. Since all the records are in memory, this can cause problems with large databases and can be a slow process. Random access databases are usually not sorted physically. However, they use an index which does sort each record by storing a 'pointer' to the next record. An index could be as simple as "3,5,1..." meaning that the first file (alphabetically) is stored as the tliird file, the second as the fifth file and so on. Loss of power (or computer crashes) used to be a major problem for any type of database. However, in a sequential database all information entered since the last time the file was saved would be lost. In a random access database, only the new information on the current record would be lost. Unfortunately, if the interruption occurred during a read or write to the disk, the entire file could be lost (unreadable). Since random access files read and write to disks every few minutes (as each record is updated or added), they are at greater risk. Modern computers and databases can usually successfiilly close a file before the interruption takes effect.
A pointer simply tells the computer where the required information is stored. A pointer could simply be a number which helps the computer present records in a sorted sequence. In other cases, pointers can hold the location and filename of a required file. A pointer can also be used to indicate data stored on a computer brain's 'stack' or in the computer's memory.